A
The similarities between chimpanzees andhumans have been studied for years, but in the past decade researchers havedetermined that these resemblances run much deeper than anyone first thought.For instance, the nut cracking observed in the Ta? Forest is far from a simplechimpanzee behavior; rather it is a singular adaptation found only in thatparticular part of Africa and a trait that biologists consider to be anexpression of chimpanzee culture. Scientists frequently use the term"culture" to describe elementary animal behaviors- such as theregional dialects of different populations of songbirds-but as it turns out,the rich and varied cultural traditions found among chimpanzees are second incomplexity only to human traditions.
B
During thepast two years, an unprecedented scientific collaboration, involving everymajor research group studying chimpanzees, has documented a multitude ofdistinct cultural patterns extending across Africa, in actions ranging from theanimals’ use of toolsto their forms of communication and social customs. This emerging picture ofchimpanzees not only affects how we think of these amazing creatures but alsoalters human beings’conception of our own uniqueness and hints at ancient foundationsfor extraordinary capacity for culture.
C
Homo sapiens and Pan troglodytes havecoexisted for hundreds of millennia and share more than 98 percent of theirgenetic material, yet only 40 years ago we still knew next to nothing aboutchimpanzee behavior in the wild. That began to change in the 1960s, whenToshisada Nishida of Kyoto University in Japan and Jane Goodall began theirstudies of wild chimpanzees at two field sites in Tanzania. (Goodall’s research station at Gombe-thefirst of its kind-is more famous, but Nishida’s site at Mahale is the second oldest chimpanzee research site inthe world.)
D
In these initial studies, as thechimpanzees became accustomed to close observation, the remarkable discoveriesbegan. Researchers witnessed a range of unexpected behaviors, including fashioningand using tools, hunting, meat eating, food sharing and lethal fights betweenmembers of neighboring communities.
E
As early as 1973, Goodall recorded 13 formsof tool use as well as eight social activities that appeared to differ betweenthe Gombe chimpanzees and chimpanzee populations elsewhere. She ventured thatsome variations had what she termed a cultural origin. But what exactly didGoodall mean by "culture"? According to the Oxford EncyclopedicEnglish Dictionary, culture is defined as "the customs . . . andachievements of a particular time or people." The diversity of humancultures extends from technological variations to marriage rituals, fromculinary habits to myths and legends. Animals do not have myths and legends, ofcourse. But they do have the capacity to pass on behavioral traits fromgeneration to generation, not through their genes but by learning. Forbiologists, this is the fundamental criterion for a cultural trait: it must besomething that can be learned by observing the established skills of others andthus passed on to future generations
F
What of the implications for chimpanzeesthemselves? We must highlight the tragic loss of chimpanzees, whose populationsare being decimated just when we are at last coming to appreciate theseastonishing animals more completely. Populations have plummeted in the pastcentury and continue to fall as a result of illegal trapping, logging and, mostrecently, the bushmeat trade. The latter is particularly alarming: logging hasdriven roadways into the forests that are now used to ship wild-animalmeat-including chimpanzee meat-to consumers as far afield as Europe. Suchdestruction threatens not only the animals themselves but also a host offascinatingly different ape cultures.
G
Perhaps the cultural richness of the apemay yet help in its salvation, however. Some conservation efforts have alreadyaltered the attitudes of some local people. A few organizations have begun toshow videotapes illustrating the cognitive prowess of chimpanzees. One Zairianviewer was heard to exclaim, "Ah, this ape is so like me, I can no longereat him. "
H
How an international team of chimpanzeeexperts conducted the most comprehensive survey of the animals ever attempted.Scientists have been investigating chimpanzee culture for several decades, buttoo often their studies contained a crucial flaw. Most attempts to documentcultural diversity among chimpanzees have relied solely on officially publishedaccounts of the behaviors recorded at each research site. But this approachprobably overlooks a good deal of cultural variation for three reasons.
I
First,scientists typically don’t publish an extensive list of all the activities they do not see ata particular location. Yet this is exactly what we need to know-which behaviorswere and were not observed at each site. Second, many reports describechimpanzee behaviors without saying how common they are; with- out thisinformation, we can’t determine whether a particular action was a once-in-a-lifetimeaberration or a routine event that should be considered part of the animals’ culture. Finally, researchers’ descriptions of potentiallysignificant chimpanzee behaviors frequently lack sufficient detail, making itdifficult for scientists working at other spots to record the presence orabsence of the activities.
J
To remedy these problems, the two of usdecided to take a new approach. We asked field researchers at each site for alist of all the behaviors they suspected were local traditions. With thisinformation in hand, we pulled together a comprehensive list of 65 candidatesfor cultural behaviors.
K
Then we distributed our list to the teamleaders at each site. In consultation with their colleagues, they classifiedeach behavior in terms of its occurrence or absence in the chimpanzee communitystudied. The key categories were customary behavior (occurs in most or all ofthe able-bodied members of at least one age or sex class, such as all adultmales), habitual (less common than customary but occurs repeatedly in severalindividuals), present (seen at the site but not habitual), absent (never seen),and unknown.
L
The extensive survey turned up no fewerthan 39 chimpanzee patterns of behavior that should be labeled as culturalvariations, including numerous forms of tool use, grooming techniques andcourtship gambits, several of which are illustrated throughout this article.This cultural richness is far in excess of anything known for any other speciesof animal. Today’s lessonincludes a demonstration of how to crack open a coula nut. A mother chimpanzee inthe Tai Forest of Ivory Coast uses a stone hammer to cleave a nut while ayoungster watches. Not all chimpanzees in this area have developed this behavior.On the eastern bank of the Sassandra-N’Zo River, chimpanzees do not crack nuts even though members of thesame species on the other side of the river, just a few miles away, do. All therequired raw materials are available on both sides, and the nuts could becracked using the technique habitual at Tai. The river serves as a literalcultural barrier.
Whichparagraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter G-K, inboxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
1. A problemof researchers on chimpanzee culture which are only based on official sources.
2. Design anew system by two scientists aims to solve the problem.
3. Reasonswhy previous research on ape culture is problematic.
4.Classification of data observed or collected.
5. Anexample that showing tragic outcome of animals leading to indication of changein local people’s attitude inpreservation
Do thefollowing statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
TRUE if thestatement is true
FALSE if thestatement is false
NOT GIVEN ifthe information is not given in the passage
6. Researchfound that chimpanzees will possess the same complex culture as human.
7. Human andapes ancestors lived together long ago and share most of their geneticsubstance.
8. JaneGoodall’s observedmany surprising features of complex behaviors among chimpanzees.
9.Chimpanzees, like human, deliver cultural behaviors mostly from geneticinheritance.
10. Fordecades, researchers have investigated chimpanzees by data obtained from bothunobserved and observed approaches.
11. When theunexpected discoveries of chimpanzee behavior start?
12. Whichcountry is the researching site of Toshisada Nishida and Jane Goodall?
13. What didthe chimpanzee have to get used to in the initial study?
14. Whatterm can depict it that Jane Goodall found the chimpanzee used tool in 1973?
答案：
1-5 请根据段落自己查找，段落配对是最难题型。
1. H
【原文参考依据-H段倒数第二句】Most attempts to documentcultural diversity among chimpanzees have relied solely on officially publishedaccounts of the behaviors recorded at each research site.
2. J
【原文参考依据-J段首句】To remedy(纠正) these problems, the two of usdecided to take a new approach.
3. I【原文参考依据-I段】First,scientists typically don’t publish an extensive list of all the activities they don’t see at a particular location. Yetthis is exactly what we need to know-which behaviors were and were not observedat each site. Second, many reports describe chimpanzee behaviors without sayinghow common they are;without this information, we can’t determine whether a particularaction was a once-in-a-lifetime aberration or a routine event that should beconsidered part of the animals’ culture. Finally,researchers’ descriptions of potentially significant chimpanzee behaviorsfrequently lack sufficient details, making it difficult for scientists to workat other spots to record the presence or absence of the activities.
first.... second..... finally 都是在列举原因
4. K
【原文参考依据-K段首句】Then we distributed our list tothe team leaders at each site. In consultation with their colleagues, theyclassified each behavior in terms of its occurrence or absence in thechimpanzee community studied.
5. G
【原文参考依据G段1-2句】Some conservation efforts have already altered the attitudes of somelocal people. A few organizations have begun to show videotapes illustratingthe cognitive prowess of chimpanzees. One Zairian viewer was heard to exclaim,“Ah, this ape is so like me, I canno longer eat him.” 举例，村民看完videotape ，发现猩猩和他们一样，就不打算吃猩猩了....
6. NOT GIVEN【原文参考依据-A段末尾】Scientistsfrequently use the term “culture” to describe elementary animal behaviors such as the regionaldialects of different populations of songbirds-but as it turns out, the richand varied cultural traditions found among chimpanzees are second in complexityonly to human traditions.
第6题A段末尾，题干是：“科学家可以使”。。。。一样复杂，没有科学家使动的意思，看似跟A 段最后一句定位，其实不是一个事
7. TRUE
【原文参考依据-C段首句】Homo sapiens and Pan troglodyteshave coexisted for hundreds of millennia and share more than 98 percent oftheir genetic material, yet only 40 years ago we still knew next to nothingabout chimpanzee behavior in the wild.
homo sapiens 就是人类祖先，pan troglodyte 就是猩猩祖先。
8. TRUE
【原文参考依据-C段4-6行】That began to change in the 1960s, whenToshisada Nishida of KyotoUniversity in Japan and Tane Goodall began their studies of wild chimpanzees attwo field sites in Tanzania.
9. FALSE
【原文参考依据-E段7-8行】 The diversity of human cultures extends from technological variationsto marriage rituals, from culinary habits to myths and legends.
10. FALSE
【原文参考依据-H段倒数第二句】Most attempts to documentcultural diversity among chimpanzees have relied solely on officially publishedaccounts of the behaviors recorded at each research site. 定位为H段后面的 have relied solely (完全)on ......behaviors recorded(=observed).. 没有提到unobserved, 题干与原文直接冲突。
summary 答案洒在CDE段，比较好找。
11. in the 1960s
【原文参考依据-C段4-7行】That began to change in the 1960s, when Toshisada Nishida of KyotoUniversity in Japan and Tane Goodall began their studies of wild chimpanzees attwo field sites in Tanzania.
12. Tanzania (此题题目请将where 修改为which country)
【原文参考依据-C段4-7行】That began to change in the 1960s, whenToshisada Nishida of KyotoUniversity in Japan and Tane Goodall began their studies of wild chimpanzees attwo field sites in Tanzania.
13. (close)observation/observers
【原文参考依据-D段首句】In these initial studies, as thechimpanzees became accustomed to close observation, the remarkable discoveriesbegan.
14. (a)culture origin
【原文参考依据-E段3-4行】She ventured that some variations had what shetermed a culturalorigin.
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