A
The story of teabegan in ancient China over 5,000 years ago. According to legend, Shen Nung, anearly emperor was a skilled ruler, creative scientist and patron of the arts.His far-sighted edicts required, among other things, that all drinking water beboiled as a hygienic precaution. One summer day while visiting a distant regionof his realm, he and the court stopped to rest. In accordance with his ruling,the servants began to boil water for the court to drink. Dried leaves from thenearby bush fell into the boiling water, and a brown liquid was infused intothe water. As a scientist, the Emperor was interested in the new liquid, dranksome, and found it very refreshing. And so, according to legend, tea wascreated.
B
Tea consumptionspread throughout the Chinese culture reaching into every aspect of thesociety. In 800 A.D. Lu Yu wrote the first definitive book on tea, the Ch'aChing. This amazing man was orphaned as a child and raised by scholarlyBuddhist monks in one of China's finest monasteries. Patronized by the Emperorhimself, his work clearly showed the Zen Buddhist philosophy to which he wasexposed as a child. It was this form of tea service that Zen Buddhistmissionaries would later introduce to imperial Japan. The first tea seeds werebrought to Japan by the returning Buddhist priest Yeisei, who had seen thevalue of tea in China in enhancing religious mediation. As a result, he isknown as the "Father of Tea" in Japan. Because of this earlyassociation, tea in Japan has always been associated with Zen Buddhism. Teareceived almost instant imperial sponsorship and spread rapidly from the royalcourt and monasteries to the other sections of Japanese society.
C
Tea was elevatedto an art form resulting in the creation of the Japanese Tea Ceremony("Cha-no-yu" or "the hot water for tea"). The bestdescription of this complex art form was probably written by the Irish-Greekjournalist-historian Lafcadio Hearn, one of the few foreigners ever to begranted Japanese citizenship during this era. He wrote from personalobservation, "The Tea ceremony requires years of training and practice tograduate in art...yet the whole of this art, as to its detail, signifies nomore than the making and serving of a cup of tea. The supremely important matteris that the act be performed in the most perfect, most polite, most graceful,most charming manner possible”.Such a purity of form, of expressionprompted the creation of supportive arts and services. A special form ofarchitecture (chaseki) developed for "tea houses", based on theduplication of the simplicity of a forest cottage. The cultural/artistichostesses of Japan, the Geishi, began to specialize in the presentation of thetea ceremony. As more and more people became involved in the excitement surroundingtea, the purity of the original Zen concept was lost. The tea ceremony becamecorrupted, boisterous and highly embellished. "Tea Tournaments" wereheld among the wealthy where nobles competed among each other for rich prizesin naming various tea blends. Rewarding winners with gifts of silk, armor, andjewelry was totally alien to the original Zen attitude of the ceremony.Threegreat Zen priests restored tea to its original place in Japanese society. Oneof them is Sen-no Rikkyu (1521-1591)-priest who set the rigid standards for theceremony, largely used intact today. Rikyo was successful in influencing theShogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became Japan's greatest patron of the "artof tea". A brilliant general, strategist, poet, and artist this unique leaderfacilitated the final and complete integration of tea into the pattern ofJapanese life. So complete was this acceptance, that tea was viewed as theultimate gift, and warlords paused for tea before battles.
D
While tea was atthis high level of development in both Japan and China, information concerningthis then unknown beverage began to filter back to Europe. Earlier caravanleaders had mentioned it, but were unclear as to its service format orappearance. (One reference suggests the leaves be boiled, salted, buttered, andeaten!) The first European to personally encounter tea and write about it wasthe Portuguese Jesuit Father Jasper de Cruz in 1560. Portugal, with hertechnologically advanced navy, had been successful in gaining the first right oftrade with China. It was as a missionary on that first commercial mission thatFather de Cruz had tasted tea four years before.The Portuguese developed atrade route by which they shipped their tea to Lisbon, and then Dutch shipstransported it to France, Holland, and the Baltic countries. (At that timeHolland was politically affiliated with Portugal. When this alliance wasaltered in 1602, Holland, with her excellent navy, entered into full Pacifictrade in her own right.)
E
Because of thesuccess of the Dutch navy in the Pacific, tea became very fashionable in theDutch capital, the Hague. This was due in part to the high cost of the tea(over $100 per pound) which immediately made it the domain of the wealthy.
F
Slowly, as theamount of tea imported increased, the price fell as the volume of saleexpanded. Initially available to the public in apothecaries along with suchrare and new spices as ginger and sugar, by 1675 it was available in commonfood shops throughout Holland. As the consumption of tea increased dramaticallyin Dutch society, doctors and university authorities argued back and forth asto the negative and/or positive benefits of tea. Known as "teaheretics", the public largely ignored the scholarly debate and continuedto enjoy their new beverage though the controversy lasted from 1635 to roughly1657. Throughout this period France and Holland led Europe in the use of tea.
G
As the craze forthings oriental swept Europe, tea became part of the way of life. The socialcritic Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, the Marquise de Seven makes the first mentionin 1680 of adding milk to tea. During the same period, Dutch inns provided thefirst restaurant service of tea. Tavern owners would furnish guests with aportable tea set complete with a heating unit. The independent Dutchman wouldthen prepare tea for himself and his friends outside in the tavern's garden.Tea remained popular in France for only about fifty years, being replaced by astronger preference for wine, chocolate, and exotic coffees.Great Britain wasthe last of the three great sea-faring nations to break into the Chinese andEast Indian trade routes. This was due in part to the unsteady ascension to thethrone of the Stuarts and the Cromwellian Civil War. The first samples of teareached England between 1652 and 1654. Tea quickly proved popular enough toreplace ale as the national drink of England.As in Holland, it was the nobilitythat provided the necessary stamp of approval and so insured its acceptance.King Charles II had married, while in exile, the Portuguese Infanta Catherinede Braganza (1662). Charles himself had grown up in the Dutch capital. As aresult, both he and his Portuguese bride were confirmed tea drinkers. When themonarchy was re-established, the two rulers brought this foreign tea traditionto England with them.
H
Imperial Russiawas attempting to engage China and Japan in trade at the same time as the EastIndian Company. The Russian interest in tea began as early as 1618 when theChinese embassy in Moscow presented several chests of tea to Czar Alexis. By1689 the Trade Treaty of Newchinsk established a common border between Russiaand China, allowing caravans to then cross back and forth freely. Still, thejourney was not easy. The trip was 11,000 miles long and took over sixteenmonths to complete. The average caravan consisted of 200 to 300 camels. As aresult of such factors, the cost of tea was initially prohibitive and availableonly to the wealthy. By the time Catherine the Great died (1796), the price haddropped some, and tea was spreading throughout Russian society.
Questions 1-8
Reading passage 1has eight paragraphs, A-H
Choose the correctheading for paragraphs A-H from the list of headings below.
Write the correctnumber, i-x, in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Good or bad oftea
ii Tea ritual
iii Difficultiesof import
iv Religiousobjection of tea
v A chancediscovery
vi In and out offashion
vii A luxury thing
viii A connectionbetween tea and religion
ix Shortage ofsupply
x News of teagoing to new continent
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
3 Paragraph C
4 Paragraph D
5 Paragraph E
6 Paragraph F
7 Paragraph G
8 Paragraph H
Questions 9-13
Use theinformation in the passage to match the country (listed A-G) with statementsbelow. Write the appropriate letters A-G in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
A France
B Holland
C Japan
D China
E Britain
F Russia
G Portugal
9 house designedparticularly for tea drinking
10 tea beingsubstituted after a short period
11 using animalsfor tea transportation
12 popularity oftea despite of some dispute
13 favor of teafor ruler's specialised knowledge
中文翻译：（茶叶的历史）
| A | 茶叶的历史追溯到5000多年前的古代中国。报据传说，早期皇帝神农氏，是娴熟的统治者，创造性的科学家和艺术的守护者。此外，他高瞻远瞩的法令规定了一项卫生预防措施，即饮用水需要煮沸。夏季的一天，他访问一个边远地区，他和朝臣停下来休息，按照规定，仆人开始烧水给朝臣喝。正在此时，千枯的叶子从附近的灌木丛飘落到水中，水变为褐色。身为科学家的皇帝对这种新的液体产生了兴趣，他尝了一些，觉得精神焕发。因此，根据传说，茶就应运而生了。 |
| B | 饮茶传遍了中国的文化，渗透到社会的各个方面。公元800年，鲁豫写了第一本关于茶的著作，Ch’s Ching。这位奇人，在孩童时期，便是孤儿，被中国最好的一所寺院的学术佛教的僧人收养。因受皇帝惠顾，他的作品清晰地阐明了孩童时期接触到的禅宗佛教哲学。禅宗佛教传教士后来将这种形式的茶饮服务传播到日本帝国。 第一批茶种是由归国僧人Yeisei带到日本，他看到了茶在中国提高宗教调解的价值。因此，他被日本人称为 “茶之父” 。因为这种早期的协会，在日本，茶与禅宗相关联。茶瞬间受到帝国赞助者的青睐，从宫廷和寺院蔓延到日本社会的各个阶层。 |
| C | 茶上升为艺术形式，因此促进了日本茶道的兴起（“cha-no-yu”or “the hot water for tea”）对于这个复杂的艺术形式，最好的描述出自由爱尔兰-希腊史学记者Lafcadio Hearn, 他是这个时代少数外国人中被授予日本公民权的人。他的作品源于亲身观察，“茶道需要多年的训练和实践才能成为艺术……但艺术的整休，就细节而言，无非是沏茶和上茶服务。茶道中最为重要的是以最完美，最优雅，最陶醉的方式呈现出来。 如此纯洁的形式，如此纯粹的表达，造就了艺术和服务。一种特殊建筑形式（chaseki）因“茶馆”而兴起，它的原型是基于一个朴素的森林小屋。日本文化/艺术类主持人Geishi,开始专攻茶道报告，随着越来越多的人对茶艺感兴趣，原本禅宗纯粹的观念消失了。茶道开始变得腐败、充满喧嚣且被高度渲染。“茶艺锦标赛”在富人中举行，以命名各种茶混合物，贵族之间为丰厚的奖品相互竞争。赢者能够获得丝绸、盔甲、珠宝礼品作为奖励，这与禅宗茶道的初始真谛背道而驰。 三大禅师将茶回归到日本社会初始地位。其中一个是牧师Sen-no rikkyu(1521-1591)-规定了茶道严格的标准，至今还完整延续。Rikyo成功影响将军丰臣秀吉，他是日本最大的茶艺赞助人。一个优秀的将领，军事家，诗人，艺术家，这位独特的领导者促使茶完全渗透入日本人生活中。接受得如此透彻，以至于茶被视为至高的礼物，军阀也因茶而战前停战。 |
| D | 在中国和日本，茶都有很高的造诣，关于这种未知饮料的信息开始传到欧洲。早期的旅行队的领导人曾提到它，但对它的服务形式或外观却不得而知。（一种参考建议是叶子需要在沸水中煮，加盐，涂上黄油以调味后方能吃）1950年，葡萄牙耶稣会神父de Cruz成为欧洲第一位亲自品茶并将此记录下来的人。 由于技术先进的海军，葡萄牙成功获得与中国的贸易优先权。四年前，在那首次商业任务中作为传教士的Father de Cruz已品过茶。 葡萄牙发展了贸易路线，这样他们能够将茶叶运到里斯本，然后由荷兰船只运到法国、荷兰以及波罗的海的各个国家。（当时荷兰在政治上与葡萄牙交往。1602年，这个联盟发生了改变，荷兰带着她优秀的海军，进入太平洋自主贸易） |
| E | 由于荷兰军队在人平洋贸易中取得成功，茶叶在荷兰首都海牙茶很风靡。这部分原因是茶的成本高（超过每磅100美元)，这使得海牙很快成为富人的领域。 |
| F | 随着茶叶进口量增加，茶叶价格也随着销售量的增长而逐渐下跌，最初人们能在药店买到茶叶，如同生姜和糖一样，是罕见的新品种，到1675，整个荷兰的在普通食品店都可以买到。在荷兰社会，茶叶消费急剧增加，医生和人学权威机构对茶叶的负面或正面影响争执不。尽管这种辩论从1635大约持续1657，被称为“茶异教徒"的人，在很大程度上忽视了学术辩论，而继续享受他们的新饮品，在这个时期，法国和荷兰成为欧洲茶叶应用的先驱。 |
| G | 东方人对物品的狂热席卷欧洲，茶成为他们生活的一部分。社会评论家Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marquise de Seven 在1680年首次将牛奶加入茶中。在同一时期，荷兰旅馆推出了第一家提供茶服务的餐馆。旅店老板会提供给客人具有加热功能的便携式茶具，独立的荷兰人会在旅馆花园里为自己和朋友准备茶饮。饮茶在法国流行只有50年，由于对酒，巧克力、异国情调的咖啡的强烈偏好，随后便将茶取而代之。 三大航海国之一的英国是最后闯入中国和东印度贸易路线，这部分是由于不稳固的斯图亚特王位以及克伦威尔的内战。茶叶样品首次到达英格兰是在1652和1654之间，茶叶很快受到青睐，足以取代英国国家国酒麦芽酒。 在荷兰，正是贵族阶级提供必要盖章批准，才使得他有了为人们所接受的保障。在流放期间，国王查尔斯二世与葡萄牙的凯瑟琳公主布拉丁萨德（1662）结婚。查尔斯本人曾在荷兰首都长大。因此，他和他的葡萄牙新娘都是饮茶者。当君主制被重新确立，这两个统治者将外国茶传统带到了英国。 |
| H | 在与东印度公司贸易的同时，俄罗斯帝国试图参与中日贸易。早在1618年前，俄罗斯开始对茶饮感兴趣，中国驻莫斯科大使馆赠送了几箱茶叶给Czar Alexis。 1689 Newchins贸易条约确定了俄罗斯和中国的共同的边境，允许旅行队来回自由行使。然而，旅程不易，这段行程长11000英里，需要花费十六个月。平均由200到300只骆驼商队。因此，茶叶的成本髙的让人望而却步，只有富豪才能享用。当凯瑟琳大帝死后（1796）茶叶价格下降了一些，茶叶便传播到俄罗斯社会。 |
答案：
1.v 2.viii 3.ii 4.x 5.vii 6.i 7.vi 8.iii
9.C 10.A 11.F 12. B 13.D
第三篇：
Implication of False Belief Experiments(错误信念实验)
A A considerable amount of research since the mid 1980s has been concerned with what has been termed children’s theory of mind. This involves children’s ability to understand that people can have different beliefs and representations of the world -a capacity that is shown by four years of age. Furthermore, this ability appears to be absent in children with autism. The ability to work out what another person is thinking is clearly an important aspect of both cognitive and social development. Furthermore, one important explanation for autism is that children suffering from this condition do not have a theory of mind (TOM). Consequently, the development of children’s TOM has attracted considerable attention.
B Wimmer and Perner devised a ‘false belief task’ to address this question. They used some toys to act out the following story. Maxi left some chocolate in a blue cupboard before he went out. When he was away his mother moved the chocolate to a green cupboard. Children were asked to predict where Maxi will look for his chocolate when he returns. Most children under four years gave the incorrect answer, that Maxi will look in the green cupboard. Those over four years tended to give the correct answer, that Maxi will look in the blue cupboard. The incorrect answers indicated that the younger children did not understand that Maxi’s beliefs and representations no longer matched the actual state of the world, and they failed to appreciate that Maxi will act on the basis of his beliefs rather than the way that the world is actually organised.
C A simpler version of the Maxi task was devised by Baron-Cohen to take account of criticisms that younger children may have been affected by the complexity and too much information of the story in the task described above. For example, the child is shown two dolls, Sally and Anne, who have a basket and a box, respectively. Sally also has a marble, which she places in her basket, and then leaves to take a walk. While she is out of the room, Anne takes the marble from the basket, eventually putting it in the box. Sally returns, and the child is then asked where Sally will look for the marble. The child passes the task if she answers that Sally will look in the basket, where she put the marble; the child fails the task if she answers that Sally will look in the box, where the child knows the marble is hidden, even though Sally cannot know, since she did not see it hidden there. In order to pass the task, the child must be able to understand that another’s mental representation of the situation is different from their own, and the child must be able to predict behavior based on that understanding. The results of research using false-belief tasks have been fairly consistent: most normally-developing children are unable to pass the tasks until around age four.
D Leslie argues that, before 18 months, children treat the world in a literal way and rarely demonstrate pretence. He also argues that it is necessary for the cognitive system to distinguish between what is pretend and what is real. If children were not able to do this, they would not be able to distinguish between imagination and reality. Leslie suggested that this pretend play becomes possible because of the presence of a de-coupler that copies primary representations to secondary representations. For example, children, when pretending a banana is a telephone, would make a secondary representation of a banana. They would manipulate this representation and they would use their stored knowledge of ‘telephone’ to build on this pretence.
E There is also evidence that social processes play a part in the development of TOM. Meins and her colleagues have found that what they term mindmindedness in maternal speech to six-month old infants is related to both security of attachment and to TOM abilities. Mindmindedness involves speech that discusses infants’ feelings and explains their behaviour in terms of mental states (e. g. ‘you’re feeling hungry’).
F Lewis investigated older children living in extended families in Crete and Cyprus. They found that children who socially interact with more adults, who have more friends, and who have more older siblings tend to pass TOM tasks at a slightly earlier age than other children. Furthermore, because young children are more likely to talk about their thoughts and feelings with peers than with their mothers, peer interaction may provide a special impetus to the development of a TOM. A similar point has been made by Dunn, who argues that peer interaction is more likely to contain pretend play and that it is likely to be more challenging because other children, unlike adults, do not make large adaptations to the communicative needs of other children.
G In addition, there has been concern that some aspects of the TOM approach underestimate children’s understanding of other people. After all, infants will point to objects apparently in an effort to change a person’s direction of gaze and interest; they can interact quite effectively with other people; they will express their ideas in opposition to the wishes of others; and they will show empathy for the feelings of others. All this suggests that they have some level of understanding that their own thoughts are different to those in another person’s mind. Evidence to support this position comes from a variety of sources. When a card with a different picture on each side is shown to a child and an adult sitting opposite her, then three year olds understand that they see a different picture to that seen by the adult.
H Schatz studied the spontaneous speech of three-year-olds and found that these children used mental terms, and used them in circumstances where there was a contrast between, for example, not being sure where an object was located and finding it, or between pretending and reality. Thus the social abilities of children indicate that they are aware of the difference between mental states and external reality at ages younger than four.
I A different explanation has been put forward by Harris. He proposed that children use ‘simulation’. This involves putting yourself in the other person’s position, and then trying to predict what the other person would do. Thus success on false belief tasks can be explained by children trying to imagine what they would do if they were a character in the stories, rather than children being able to appreciate the beliefs of other people. Such thinking about situations that do not exist involves what is termed counterfactual reasoning.
参考答案：
Questions 27-33 Matching
A Baron-Cohen
B Meins
C Wimmer and Perner
D Lewis
E Dunn
F Schatz
G Harris
27 Giving an alternative explanation that children may not be understanding other’s belief. G
28 found that children under certain age can tell difference between reality and mentality. F
29 conducted a well-known experiment and drew conclusion that young children were unable to comprehend the real state of the world. C
30 found that children who gets along with adults often comparatively got through test more easily. D
31 revised an easier experiment rule out the possibility that children might be influenced by sophisticated reasoning. A
32 Related social factor such as mother-child communication to capability act in TOM. B
33 explained children are less likely tell something interactive to their mother than to their friends. E
Questions 34-40 Summary
In 1980s, researches are designed to test the subject called 34 Theory of Mind that if children have the ability to represent the reality. First experiment was carried out on this subject on a boy. And questions had been made on where the boy can find the location of the 35 chocolate But it was accused that it had excessive 36 information. So second modified experiment was conducted involving two dolls, and most children passed the test at the age of 37 four Then Lewis and Dunn researched 38 older children in a certain place, and found children who have more interaction such as more conversation with 39 adults actually have better performance in the test, and peer interaction is 40 challenging because of consisting pretending elements.
答案：
27. G 28. F 29.C 30.D 31.A 32.B 33.E
34.theory of mind 35.chocolate 36.information 37.four
38.older 39.adults 40.challenging
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