SMELLSLIKE YESTERDAY
Why does the scent of a fragrance ( 香味)or the mouldiness(陈腐)of an old trunk trigger such powerful memories of childhood? New researchhas the answer, writes Alexandra Witze.
A
You probably pay more attention to a newspaper with your eye’s than with your nose.But lift the paper to your nostrils ( 鼻孔) and inhale. The smell ofnewsprint might carry you back to your childhood, when your parents perused ( 精读) the paper on Sunday mornings. Or maybe some other smell takes youback-the scent of your mother’s perfume, the pungency ( 刺激性) of a driftwood campfire. Specific odours can spark a flood ofreminiscences. Psychologists call it the “ Proustian phenomenon” ( 涌式现象), after French novelist Marcel Proust. Near the beginning of themasterpiece In Search of Lost Time, Proust’s narrator dunks ( 蘸) a madeleine cookie into a cup of tea - and the scent and taste unleash ( 释放) a torrent ( 连续不断的) of childhood memories for 3000 pages.
B
Now,this phenomenon is getting the scientific treatment. Neuroscientists RachelHerz, a cognitive neuroscientist at Brown University in Providence, RhodeIsland, have discovered, for instance, how sensory memories are shared acrossthe brain, with different brain regions remembering the sights, smells, tastesand sounds of a particular experience. Meanwhile, psychologists havedemonstrated that memories triggered by smells can be more emotional, as wellas more detailed, than memories not related to smells. When you inhale, odourmolecules ( 分子) set brain cells dancing within a regionknown as the amygdala (杏仁区 ) , a part of the brain thathelps control emotion. In contrast, the other senses, such as taste or touch,get routed through other parts of the brain before reaching the amygdala. Thedirect link between odours and the amygdala may help explain the emotionalpotency ( 力量) of smells. “There is this uniqueconnection between the sense of smell and the part of the brain that processesemotion,” says Rachel Herz.
C
But the links don’t stop there. Like an octopus ( 章鱼 ) reaching its tentacle ( 触 须) outward, the memory of smells affects other brain regions as well. Inrecent experiments, neuroscientists at University College London (UCL) asked 15volunteers to look at pictures while smelling unrelated odours. For instance,the subjects might see a photo of a duck paired with the scent of a rose, andthen be asked to create a story linking the two. Brain scans taken at the timerevealed that the volunteers’ brains were particularly active in a region knownas the olfactory cortex ( 嗅觉脑皮层) , which is known to be involvedin processing smells. Five minutes later, the volunteers were shown the duckphoto again, but without the rose smell. And in their brains, the olfactorycortex lit up again, the scientists reported recently. The fact that theolfactory cortex became active in the absence of the odour suggests thatpeople’s sensory memory of events is spread across different brain regions.Imagine going on a seaside holiday, says UCL team leader, Jay Gottfried. Thesight of the waves becomes stored in one area, whereas the crash of the surfgoes elsewhere, and the smell of seaweed in yet another place. There could beadvantages to having memories spread around the brain. “You can reawaken thatmemory from any one of the sensory triggers,” says Gottfried. “Maybe the smellof the sun lotion, or a particular sound from that day, or the sight of a rockformation.” Or in the case of an early hunter and gatherer ( out on a plain -the sight of a lion might be enough to trigger the urge to flee, rather than having to wait for the sound of its roar and the stench ( 恶臭) of its hide to kick in as well.
D
Remembered smells may also carry extra emotional baggage, says Herz. Her research suggeststhat memories triggered by odours are more emotional than memories triggered byother cues. In one recent study, Herz recruited five volunteers who had vividmemories associated with a particular perfume, such as opium for Women andJuniper Breeze from Bath and Body Works. She took images of the volunteers’brains as they sniffed that perfume and an unrelated perfume without knowing whichwas which. (They were also shown photos of each perfume bottle.) Smelling thespecified perfume activated the volunteers brains the most, particularly in theamygdala, and in a region called the hippocampus ( 海马体) , which helps in memory formation. Herz published the work earlier thisyear in the journal Neuropsychologia.
E
But she couldn’t be sure that the other senses wouldn’t also elicit ( 抽出) a strong response. So in another study Herz compared smells with soundsand pictures. She had 70 people describe an emotional memory involving threeitems-popcorn, fresh-cut grass and a campfire. Then they compared the itemsthrough sights, sounds and smells. For instance, the person might see a pictureof a lawnmower, then sniff the scent of grass and finally listen to thelawnmower’s sound. Memories triggered by smell were more evocative thanmemories triggered by either sights or sounds.
F
Odour-evoked memories may be not only more emotional, but more detailed as well. Workingwith colleague John Downes, psychologist Simon Chu of the University ofLiverpool started researching odour and memory partly because of hisgrandmothers stories about Chinese culture. As generations gathered to shareoral histories, they would pass a small pot of spice or incense around; later,when they wanted to remember the story in as much detail as possible, theywould pass the same smell around again. “It’s kind of fits with a lot ofanecdotal evidence on how smells can be really good reminders of pastexperiences,” Chu says. And scientific research seems to bear out ( 证实) the anecdotes. In one experiment, Chu and Downes asked 42 volunteers totell a life story, then tested to see whether odours such as coffee andcinnamon ( 肉 桂皮) could help them remember more detail inthe story. They could.
G
Despite such studies, not everyone is convinced that Proust can be scientificallyanalysed. In the June issue of Chemical Senses, Chu and Downes exchangedcritiques(批评) with renowned perfumer and chemist J.Stephan Jellinek. Jellinek chided ( 责备) the Liverpool researchers for,among other things, presenting the smells and asking the volunteers to think ofmemories, rather than seeing what memories were spontaneously evoked by theodours. But there’s only so much science can do to test a phenomenon that’sinherently different for each person, Chu says. Meanwhile, Jellinek has alsobeen collecting anecdotal accounts of Proustian experiences, hoping to findsome com:mon links between the experiences. “I think there is a case to be madethat surprise may be a major aspect of the Proust phenomenon,” he says. “That’swhy people are so struck by these memories.” No one knows whether Proust everexperienced such a transcendental ( 阜越的) moment. But his notions ofmemory, written as fiction nearly a century ago, continue to inspire scientists of today.
Questions14-18
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-C) with opinionsor deeds below.
Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 14-18 on your answersheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once
A Rachel HerzB Simon ChuC Jay Gottfried
14 The found pattern of different sensory memories stored in various zones of thebrain.
15 The smell brings detailed event under the smell of a certain substance.
16 Connection of smell and certain zones of the brain is different from that of other senses.
17 Diverse locations of stored information help us keep away the hazard.
18 There is no necessary correlation between smell and processing zone of the brain.
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.Write your answers inboxer 19-22 on your answer sheet
19 In paragraph B, what do the experiments conducted by Herz and otherscientists show?
A Women are more easily addicted to opium medicine
B Smell is superior to other senses in connection to the brain
C Smell is more important than other senses
D certain part of the brain relates the emotion to the sense of smell
20 What does the second experiment conducted by Herz suggest?
A Result directly conflicts with the first one
B Result of her first experiment is correct
C Sights and sounds trigger memories at an equal level
D Lawnmoweris a perfect example in the experiment、
21 What is the outcome of an experiment conducted by Chu and Downes?
A smell is the only functional under Chinese tradition
B half of the volunteers told detailed stories
C smells of certain odours assist storytellers
D odours of cinnamon are stronger than that of coffee
22 What is the comment of Jellinek to Chu and Downes in the issueof Chemical Senses:
A Jellinek accused their experiment of being unscientific
B Jellinek thought Liverpool is not a suitable place for experiment
C Jellinke suggested that there was no further clue of what specific memories aroused
D Jellinek stated that the experiment could be remedied
Questions23-26
Summary Completethe following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage
Using NOMORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.
In the experiments conducted by UCL, participants were asked to look at a picture withthe scent of a flower, then in the next stage, everyone would have to 23………………………..for a connection. A method called 24………………………suggested that specific area ofthe brain named 25…………………….were quite active. Then inanother paralleled experiment about Chinese elders, storytellers could recalldetailed anecdotes when smelling a bowl of 26………………….. or incense around.
A
When people are faced with a foreign-language barrier, the usual way around it is tofind someone to interpret or translate for them. The term ‘translation’, is theneutral term used for all tasks where the meaning of expressions in onelanguage (the source language) is turned into the meaning of another (the‘target’ language), whether the medium is spoken, written, or signed. Inspecific professional contexts, however, a distinction is drawn between peoplewho work with the spoken or signed language (interpreters), and those who workwith the written language (translators). There are certain tasks that blur thisdistinction, as when source speeches turned into target writing. But usuallythe two roles are seen as quite distinct, and it is unusual to find one personwho is equally happy with both occupations. Some writers on translation,indeed, consider the interpreting task to be more suitable for extrovertpersonalities, and the translating task for introverts.
B
Interpreting is today widely known from its use in international political life. When seniorministers from different language backgrounds meet, the television recordinvariably shows a pair of interpreters hovering in the background. At majorconferences, such as the United Nations General Assembly, the presence ofheadphones is a clear indication that a major linguistic exercise is takingplace. In everyday circumstances, interpreters are frequently needed,especially in cosmopolitan societies formed by new reiterations of immigrantsand Gastarbeiter. Often, the business of law courts, hospitals, local healthclinics, classrooms, or industrial tribunals cannot be carried on without thepresence of an interpreter. Given the importance and frequency of this task,therefore, it is remarkable that so little study has been made of what actuallyhappens when interpreting takes place, and of how successful an exercise it is.
C
There are two main kinds of oral translation – consecutive and simultaneous Inconsecutive translation the translation starts after the original speech orsome part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter’s strategy and thefinal results depend, to a great extent on the length of the segment to betranslated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closelyfollows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter isexpected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes oreven longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages andkeep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible theinterpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems ofnotation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in,such notation is the integral part of the interpreter’s training as are specialexercises to develop his memory.
D
Doubtless the recency of developments in the field partly explains this neglect. Oneprocedure, consecutive interpreting, is very old — and presumably dates fromthe Tower of Babel! Here, the interpreter translates after the speaker hasfinished speaking. This approach is widely practised in informal situations, aswell as in committees and small conferences. In larger and more formalsettings, however, it has been generally replaced by simultaneous interpreting— a recent development that arose from the availability of modern audiologicalequipment and the advent of increased international interaction following theSecond World War.
E
Of the two procedures, it is the second that has attracted most interest, because ofthe complexity of the task and the remarkable skills required. In no othercontext of human communication is anyone routinely required to listen and speakat the same time, preserving an exact semantic correspondence between the twomodes. Moreover, there is invariably a delay of a few words between thestimulus and the response, because of the time it takes to assimilate what isbeing said in the source language and to translate it into an acceptable formin the target language. This ‘ear-voice span’ is usually about 2 or 3 seconds,but it may be as much as 10 seconds or so, if the text is complex. The brainhas to remember what has just been said, attend to what is currently beingsaid, and anticipate the construction of what is about to be said. As you starta sentence you are taking a leap in the dark, you are mortgaging yourgrammatical future; the original sentence may suddenly be turned in such a waythat your translation of its end cannot easily be reconciled (with yourtranslation of its start. Great nimbleness is called for…
F
How it is all done is not at all clear. That it is done at all is a source of somewonder, given the often lengthy periods of interpreting required, the confinedenvironment of an interpreting booth, the presence of background noise, and theawareness that major decisions may depend upon the accuracy of the work. Otherconsiderations such as cultural background also make it aim to pay fullattention to the backgrounds of the authors and the recipients and to take intoaccount differences between source and target language.
G
Research projects have now begun to look at these factors – to determine, for example,how far successful interpreting is affected by poor listening conditions or thespeed at which the source language is spoken. It seems that an input speed ofbetween 100 and 120 words per minute is a comfortable rate for interpreting,with an upper limit of around 200 w.p.m. But even small increases in speed candramatically affect the accuracy of output. In one controlled study, whenspeeds were gradually increased in a series of stages from 95 to 164 w.p.m.,the ear-voice span also increased with each stage, and the amount correctlyinterpreted showed a clear decline. Also, as the translating load increases,not only are there more errors of commission (mistranslations, cases ofvagueness replacing precision), but there are also more errors of omission, aswords and segments of meaning are filtered out. These are important findings,given the need for accuracy in international communication. What is needed is amore detailed identification of the problem areas, and of the strategiesspeakers, listeners, and interpreters use to solve them. There is an urgentneed to expand what has so far been one of the most neglected fields ofcommunication research.
Questions 14-18
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write your answers in boxes 14-18 onyour answer sheet.
14 In which way does the author statetranslation at the beginning of the passage?
A abstract and concrete meaning
B general and specific meaning
C several examples of translation’s meaning
D different meanings in various profession
15 Application of headphones in a UNconference tells us that:
A TV show is being conducted
B radio program is on the air
C two sides are debating
D language practice is in the process
16 In the passage, what is the author’spurpose in citing the Tower of Babel?
A interpreting secret is stored in the Tower
B interpreter emerged exactly from the timeof Tower of Babel
C consecutive interpreting has a longhistory
D consecutive interpreting should beabandoned
17 About simultaneous interpreting,which of the following is TRUE?
A it is an old and disposable interpretationmethod
B it doesn’t need outstanding professionalability
C it relies on professional equipment
D it takes less than two seconds ear-voicespan
18 In consecutive translation, if thesection is longer than expected,
what would an interpreter most probably do?
A he or she has to remember some parts ahead
B he or she has to break them down first
C he or she has to respond as quickly aspossible
D he or she has to remember all parts ahead
Questions 19-23
Summary
Complete the following summary of theparagraphs of Reading Passage, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS OR A NUMBER fromthe Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 19-22 onyour answer sheet.
The cycle from ear to voice normally lastsabout 19.................. , which depends on the sophistication of paper,for example, it could go up to 20................... sometimes. Whenexperts took close research on affecting elements, they found appropriatespeaking speed is somehow among 21.................... w.p.m. In aspecific experiment, the accuracy of interpretation dropped while the ear-voicespan speed increased between 95 to 164 w.p.m. However, the maximum speed wasabout 22.................... W.p.m.
Questions 23-26
Choose FOUR correct letters. Writeyour answers in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet. Which FOUR ofthe following are the factors that affect interpreting?
A mastery in the structure and grammar ofsentences in the script
B speed of incoming sound source
C noisy of background
D emotional states of interpreter
E culture of different backgrounds
F understanding the significance of beingprecise
G upper volume limit of speakers
答案：
14. B
15. D
16 . C
17 . C
18 . A
19 . 2 -3 SECONDS
20 . 10 SECONDS
21. 100 TO 120
22 . 200
23 . B
24 . C
25 . E
26 . F
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