第一篇：Classifying societies?
原文：
A
Although humanshave established many types of societies throughout history, sociologists andanthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree towhich different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages suchas resources, prestige or power, and usually refer to four basic types ofsocieties. From least to most socially complex they are clans, tribes,chiefdoms and states.
B
Clan
These aresmall-scale societies of hunters and gatherers, generally of fewer than 100 people,who move seasonally to exploit wild (undomesticated) food resources. Mostsurviving hunter-gatherer groups are of this kind, such as the Hadza ofTanzania or the San of southern Africa. Clan members are generally kinsfolk,related by descent or marriage. Clans lack formal leaders, so there are nomarked economic differences or disparities in status among theirmembers.
C
Because clans are posed of mobile groups of hunter-gatherers, theirsites consist mainly of seasonally occupied camps, and other smaller and morespecialized sites. Among the latter are kill or butchery sites—locations wherelarge mammals are killed and sometimes butchered—and work sites, where toolsare made or other specific activities carried out. The base camp of such agroup may give evidence of rather insubstantial dwellings or temporaryshelters, along with the debris of residential occupation.
D
Tribe
These are generallylarger than mobile hunter-gatherer groups, but rarely number more than a fewthousand, and their diet or subsistence is based largely on cultivated plantsand domesticated animals. Typically, they are settled farmers, but they may benomadic with a very different, mobile economy based on the intensiveexploitation of livestock. These are generally multi-munity societies, with theindividual munities integrated into the larger society through kinship ties.Although some tribes have officials and even a “capital” or seat of government,such officials lack the economic base necessary for effective use of power.
E
The typicalsettlement pattern for tribes is one of settled agricultural homesteads orvillages. Characteristically, no one settlement dominates any of the others inthe region. Instead, the archaeologist finds evidence for isolated, permanentlyoccupied houses or for permanent villages. Such villages may be made up of acollection of free-standing houses, like those of the first farms of the Danubevalley in Europe. Or they may be clusters of buildings grouped together, forexample, the pueblos of the American Southwest, and the early farming villageor small town of Catalhhoyuk in modern Turkey.
F
Chiefdom
These operate onthe principle of ranking—differences in social status between people. Differentlineages (a lineage is a group claiming descent from a common ancestor) aregraded on a scale of prestige, and the senior lineage, and hence the society asa whole, is governed by a chief. Prestige and rank are determined by howclosely related one is to the chief, and there is no true stratification intoclasses. The role of the chief is crucial.
G
Often, there is local specializationin craft products, and surpluses of these and of foodstuffs are periodicallypaid as obligation to the chief. He uses these to maintain his retainers, andmay use them for redistribution to his subjects. The chiefdom generally has acenter of power, often with temples, residences of the chief and his retainers,and craft specialists. Chiefdoms vary greatly in size, but the range isgenerally between about 5000 and 20,000 persons.
H
Early State
These preserve manyof the features of chiefdoms, but the ruler (perhaps a king or sometimes aqueen) has explicit authority to establish laws and also to enforce them by theuse of a standing army. Society no longer depends totally upon kin relationships:it is now stratified into different classes. Agricultural workers and thepoorer urban dwellers form the lowest classes, with the craft specialistsabove, and the priests and kinsfolk of the ruler higher still. The functions ofthe ruler are often separated from those of the priest: palace is distinguishedfrom temple. The society is viewed as a territory owned by the ruling lineageand populated by tenants who have an obligation to pay taxes. The centralcapital houses a bureaucratic administration of officials; one of theirprincipal purposes is to collect revenue (often in the form of taxes and tolls)and distribute it to government, army and craft specialists. Many early statesdeveloped complex redistribution systems to support these essential services.
I
This rather simplesocial typology, set out by Elman Service and elaborated by William Sanders andJoseph Marino, can be criticized, and it should not be used unthinkingly.Nevertheless, if we are seeking to talk about early societies, we must usewords and hence concepts to do so. Service’ s categories provide a goodframework to help organize our thoughts.
Questions 1-7
Do the followingstatements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes1-7on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if thestatement is true
FALSE if thestatement is false
NOT GIVEN if theinformation is not given in the passage
Little economicdifference could be found between clan members.
There are a widerange of plants that grew by the farmers of a tribe.
3.0ne settlement isthe most important in a tribe
How much land aperson owns determines his status
People craft goodsin chiefdoms.
The king usesmilitary force to maintain the order of a state.
Bureaucraticofficers receive higher salaries than other members.
Questions 8-13
Choose No More ThanTwo Words from the passage for each answer.
Write your answersin boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
8 What are carriedout at the clan work sites?
9 Besides settlefarming, what is the other way of life for tribes?
10 What is thearrangement of Catalhoyuk’s housing units?
11 What does achief reward his subjects apart from giving crafted goods?
12 What is thesmallest possible population of a chiefdom?
13 Which group ofpeople is at the bottom of an early state but higher than the farmers?
答案:
1 True
2 NOT GIVEN
3 FALSE
4 FALSE
5 TRUE
6 TRUE
7 NOT GIVEN
8 Specificactivities
9 nomadic
10 grouped/groupedtogether
11 foodstuffs
12 5000
13 craftspecialists
第二篇：机器人 Man or Machine
原文：
A
During July 2003, the Museum of Science in Cambridge, Massachusetts exhibited what Honda calls 'the world's most advanced humanoid robot', AS1MO (the Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility). Honda's brainchild is on tour in North America and delighting audiences wherever it goes. After 17 years in the making, ASIMO stands at four feet tall, weighs around 115 pounds and looks like a child in an astronaut's suit. Though it is difficult to see ASIMO's face at a distance, on closer inspection it has a smile and two large eyes' that conceal cameras. The robot cannot work autonomously - its actions are 'remote controlled' by scientists through the computer in its backpack. Yet watching ASMIO perform at a show in Massachusetts it seemed uncannily human. The audience cheered as ASIMO walked forwards and backwards, side to side and up and downstairs. After the show, a number of people told me that they would like robots to play more of a role in daily life - one even said that the robot would be like 'another person'.
B
While the Japanese have made huge strides in solving some of the engineering problems of human kinetics (n.动力学) and bipedal (adj. 两足动物的)movements, for the past 10 years scientists at MIT's former Artificial Intelligence (Al) lab (recently renamed the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, CSAIL) have been making robots that can behave like humans and interact with humans. One of MITs robots, Kismet, is an anthropomorphic (adj.拟人的) head and has two eyes (complete with eyelids), ears, a mouth, and eyebrows. It has several facial expressions, including happy, sad, frightened and disgusted. Human interlocutors are able to read some of the robot's facial expressions, and often change their behavior towards the machine as a result - for example, playing with it when it appears ‘sad’. Kismet is now in MIT’s museum, but the ideas developed here continue to be explored in new robots.
C
Cog (short for Cognition) is another pioneering project from MIT’s former AI lab. Cog has a head, eyes, two arms, hands and a torso (n.躯干) - and its proportions were originally measured from the body of a researcher in the lab. The work on Cog has been used to test theories of embodiment and developmental robotics, particularly getting a robot to develop intelligence by responding to its environment via sensors, and to learn through these types of interactions.
D
MIT is getting furthest down the road to creating human-like and interactive robots. Some scientists argue that ASIMO is a great engineering feat but not an intelligent machine - because it is unable to interact autonomously with unpredictabilities in its environment in meaningful ways, and learn from experience. Robots like Cog and Kismet and new robots at MIT’s CSAIL and media lab, however, are beginning to do this.
E
These are exciting developments. Creating a machine that can walk, make gestures and learn from its environment is an amazing achievement. And watch this space: these achievements are likely rapidly to be improved upon. Humanoid robots could have a plethora of uses in society, helping to free people from everyday tasks. In japan, for example, there is an aim to create robots that can do the tasks similar to an average human, and also act in more sophisticated situations as firefighters, astronauts or medical assistants to the elderly in the workplace and in homes – partly in order to counterbalance the effects of an ageing population.
F
Such robots say much about the way in which we view humanity, and they bring out the best and worst of us. On one hand, these developments express human creativity - our ability to invent, experiment, and to extend our control over the world. On the other hand, the aim to create a robot like a human being is spurred on by dehumanized ideas - by the sense that human companionship can be substituted by machines; that humans lose their humanity when they interact with technology; or that we are little more than surface and ritual behaviors, that can be simulated with metal and electrical circuits.
Questions 1-6
Reading passage 1 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once
1 different ways of using robots
2 a robot whose body has the same proportion as that of an adult
3 the fact that human can be copied and replaced by robots
4 a comparison between ASIMO from Honda and other robots
5 the pros and cons of creating robots
6 a robot that has eyebrows
Questions 7-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage 1, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet.
In 2003, Massachusetts displayed a robot named ASIMO which was invented by Honda, after a period of 7 in the making. The operating information is stored in the computer in its 8 so that scientists can control ASIMO's movement. While Japan is making great progress, MIT is developing robots that are human-like and can 9 humans. What is special about Kismet is that it has different 10 which can be read by human interlocutors. 11 is another robot from MIT, whose body's proportion is the same as an adult. By responding to the surroundings through 12 ,it could develop its 13 .
试题分析
Question 1-13
1.Different ways E段第4句E段开头就引出创造机器人的成就, 随后并提出这些成就有一定的发展空间, 直到第四句说明这些类人机器人have a plethora of uses,用途多样. 因此答案为E
2.The same proportion
...adultC段第2句C段第2句提到cog has a head...and its proportions were originally measured from the body of a researcher in the lab. 表明该机器人是按照成年人人体比例创造的, 因此答案为C
3.Copied replacedF段第3句F段第三句the aim to create...by the sense human...can be substituted..., that can be simulated 都表示人类可被机器等取代.因此答案为F
4.Comparison
ASIMO... Pther robotsD段第2,3句D段第2句指出ASIMO is...but not an intelligent machine,because it is unable to...learn from experience.第3句又表明robots like...however, are beginning to do this. 体现出其他机器人能做到ASIMO所不能做到的自发学习. 因此答案为D
5.Pros and consF段第1句F段开头指出这些机器人证明了我们看待人性的方式, bring out the best and worst of us.这半句话体现出创造机器人的利与弊. 因此答案为F
6.eyebrowsB段倒数第4句B段倒数第四句提到one of MIT’S robots is...and has two eyes...and eyebrows. 因此答案B
Question7-13 Summary from Reading Passage
summary参考解题思路: 先跳开空格把该段通读一遍, 了解大意, 发现总体是按照文章段落顺序概括的. (如有所遗忘, 再看原文各段段首句, 大概知道各句在文章的相应段落)
解析: 第1句和第2句对应文章A段, 根据after a period of 7___in the making定位该段第3句, 答案为17 years. 然后根据文章倒数第四句its action are...controlled by scientists through...in its backpack.可以判断8答案为backpack. 该题第3, 4句对应文章B段, MIT is inventing robots...with the ability to 8___humans定位该段第2句behave like humans and interact with humans.可以判断9答案为interact with. 根据Kismet ...has various...by human interlocutors定位原文倒数第2句human interlocutors are able to read some of the robots’ facial expressions得出10答案为facial expressions. 第5,6句对应原文C段, robot from MIT，proportion定位该段第1, 2句得出11答案为Cog/cognition. 最后根据该段最后一句getting a robot to develop intelligence via sensors判断12答案为sensors, 13 答案为intelligence.
参考翻译：
是人还是机器
A在2003年7月，曼彻斯特的剑桥博物馆陈列了Honda称之为“世界最先进的人性机器人”：ASIMO (即“创新移动的进步之举)。Honda的智力产物正在北美巡回展示，所过之处，总能令现众开心不已。17年的辛苦制作，ASIMO高4英尺，重115磅，以小孩的形态穿着宇航服。在远距离看不清ASIMO,近距离下ASIMO面带微笑，两个大眼睛包含着摄像头。它不能自己行走，得由科学家通过机器人背包上的电脑远程控制。观察ASIMO在曼彻斯特的表演，很令人惊讶，它具有人性的特征。ASIMO走来走去的时候，上下楼梯的时候，现众总是爆发出喝彩声。展示过后，许多人跟我说，他们喜欢机器人在日常生活中起更大的作用——有人甚至说：机器人就像是人一样。
B日本人大踏步地解决人类动力学和两足动物移动的工程问題。与此同时，近十年来，MIT的前人工智能实验室AI(现在重新命名为电脑科学人工智能实验室CSAIL)—直致力于研制能够类似于人类，同时能与人互动的机器人。Kismet是MIT的拟人机器人，有一个像人一样的头，有两只眼睛(也有眼睑)，耳朵，嘴巴，眉毛。它可以做好些面部表情，比如开心，悲伤，惊恐，讨厌。与之对话，我们可以获得机器人的些许面部表情，从而改换面对机器人的态度。比如说：当机器人表现出“悲伤”的时候，就与机器人玩耍.Kismet如今位于MIT的博物馆，但这里发展的理念将继续在新的机器人身上被探索。
CCOG(认知cognition的缩写)是另外一个前MIT智能实验室的先驱项目。有头，两条胳膊，手臂和躯干，其比例最早是由实验室研究员的身体测量而来的。COG被用来检测机器人学的体现和发展，特别是通过传感器去发展智力反应周边环境方面，以及通过互动类型学习方面。
D在创造类人互动机器人方面，MIT无疑走得最远。有些科学家争辩道：ASIMO是一个伟大的工程，但并不算是智力机器。因为它不能自动以有意义的方式与未知情况互动，也不能从经验中学习。COG和Kismet,以及在MIT的CSAIL媒体实验室的新机器人却是可以自发学习的。
E这些都是令人激动的进展。创造一个机器，能走，能做手势，能从环境中学习，这是了不起的成就。看看这种发展空间吧：这些现有成就都还能够很快地加以改进。类人机器人能在社会上具有广泛的用途：把人们从日常琐事中解放出来。举个例子：在日本，人们想创造出精密的机器人，能够与正常人做一样的工作，比如说消防队员，宇航员，工作地点和家中医护助手，以便于部分地抵消老龄化的影响。
F这些机器人证明了我们看待人性的方式，它们也表现出了我们人类中最好的和最差的方面。一方面，这些发展表达了人类创新性，也就是我们有能力去发明，实验，和延长对世界的控制。另一方面，创造类人机器人的目标被去个性化的理念所刺激。人类友情将让路于机器。当人类与技术互动时，人类失去了人性。或者说，我们人类不过是表面和楼式行为而己，能够被钢铁和电路所取代。
答案：
1.E 2.C 3.F 4.D 5.F 6.B
7.17 years 8.backpack 9.interact with 10. facial expressions
11.Cog/Cognition 12.sensors 13. intelligence
第三篇：how scientist think of science
