2018年11月17日托福听说读写真题答案回忆蹲点汇总+解析
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2018年11月17日托福听说读写真题答案回忆蹲点汇总+解析回忆1：Reading1.讲寒武纪大爆发，主要是原因和猜想，涉及到软体动物的外壳之类的。2.讲人类种植和畜牧的影响，涉及人类从hunt and gather 转向种植的原因。3.讲两种蜥蜴：一种动，一种静。他们能量消耗方式，身体构造和被捕食的可能性。4.2018年5月6日原题 物种灭绝两种原因：被人类大范围捕杀 or 只是轻微捕杀但是mortality有关。5.高温或低温下动物生存。6.会唱歌的鸟。7.地形对气候的改变。8.玛雅人的消失之谜，也是提出几个理论，但是没证据。9.鸟如何散热。10.某一种恐龙是水生还是陆生。11.罗马的道路建设和进出口。12.火山喷发造成空气污染，气温降低，对几个空气层的影响。
单词题：compensate=make up forsuperlativeaccessible=availableexclude fromrefugepromptput forthdepletionaccessibleexclusive=soleprevailing=dominantsubsequently=one after anther回忆2：ListeningConversation1.一个女生去书店换书和借书。2.讲一个男生去找老师交作业，然后抱怨了一下自己小组任务任务好重，不过大家也都是无意的然后lec介绍了一个天文观测台，考了选址要求。3.学生要换个工作。4.讲关于互联网的business plan。5.一个学生想要转专业，原来是戏剧专业，他现在想学musical，但不换department，然后老师觉得他自己学的很好呀，为啥要换，他说他觉得本来自己perform很差才多努力的，其实是他的音乐才是更好的。6.学生找老师对他的演讲做指导，结果老师是评委之一，老师推荐了另一个教授并介绍了他主张的脱稿演讲理论。7.兼职学生被图书管理员叫了过去，让他详细记录兼职的时间和工作内容以供校方了解，同时给他布置了额外的任务，学生说没问题但是他要先准备考试。
Lecture1.讲古希腊的硬币变迁。2.动物会模仿其它动物来保护自己，讲了三种动物的例子。3.简奥斯汀。4.恒星运动，特别有三体feel 如果有三个恒星是一个系统 那么有一个离得远另外两个离得特别近 行星在这种系统里有两种不同的运行方式 。5.艺术类，说的一个biologist的水彩画方式 用一种大概是留白液的东西画鮟鱇鱼。6.生态学，两个实验讨论birds回声和sing。7.某一植物学家究竟是艺术家还是科学家。8.水彩画和油画。9.地质学：解释月球磁场的，月球磁场有强的区域有弱的区域，强的地方是个陨石坑，含磁物质来自外面，月球不像地球月球没有内核，但是不知道之前有没有。10.光污染对动物的影响。11.考古学：古人类在冰河世纪之后定居下来，有三个证据证明这一结论，房子，heavy工具，动物遗骸。12.生物学：讲了植物和真菌或细菌的共生关系，举了两个例子，其中主要讲了根瘤菌，能把空气中的氮气转化为植物能使用的氮的形式。回忆3：独立写作参考2017年4月5日哪个最能last friendship long time?1.friends help each other in a crisis or goes worried in life2.friend have similar interests or views in the topics3.friends trust each other completely
综合写作2012年发现一具骸骨，是不是Richard III（查理三世）阅读：1.man的DNA是bland Richard是brown2.man的radiocarbon检测出来他太老了，不是Richard3.man没有wounds和injuries而Richard打了很多战争
听力：反驳1.DNA只能看出青少年期的头发颜色，后面测不出来2.man的牙齿测出来生前吃了很多seafood，seafood会影响radiocarbon，然后偶让他的骨头看起来很老。3.Richard可以有best protection不会受太多伤，而且都是皮肤上的小伤，伤不到骨头。回忆4：SpeakingTask 1 你的朋友（大学生）打算把自行车换成汽车，然后钱通过打工来赚，想问你什么建议。Task2大学打算允许社区的人来免费听课，然后不算考试成绩和作业成绩，你的opinion是什么？Task3 second year student on campus 男生不同意，因为：1. 新老学生已经有足够的interaction in classes，不用再让老生住学校增加互动了2. 这样不能促进学生选clubs和活动，因为很多人选了好多，发现没时间就都退了。Task4 Autoinhibition，举的例子是一种叫heather的shrub，它的种子一种飞向远方，一种落地生长，落地生长的会被有毒的化学物质抑制生长，相当于鼓励种子飞向远方。Task5男生遇到问题，他的化学study group十分钟后要一起复习考试，但是他有一个历史paper没写完，还due today，两个方法：1. skip学习小组2. 和老师申请今天稍晚交（instead of今天可上交）Task 6过两个factors preventing上司delegate work给下级：1. 怕下级完成的不如自己好2. 怕下级完成得太好以至于take over their position回忆5： 阅读部分 1、物种灭绝两种观点：被人类大范围捕杀或者只是轻微捕杀但是mortality有关 2、高温或低温下动物生存3、讲寒武纪生命大爆发，主要是原因和猜想，涉及到软体动物的外壳之类4、讲人类种植和畜牧的影响，涉及人类从hunt andgather转向种植的原因5、讲两种蜥蜴，一种动，一种静。他们能量消耗方式，身体构造和被捕食的可能性6、Inca文化被Spanish记录7、地形对气候的改变8、人类对动物灭绝的影响9、鸟如何散热10、某一种恐龙是水生还是陆生11、罗马的道路建设和进出口回忆6：独立写作he most important factors that affect the lasting time Of friendship 1.在危急的时候互相帮助2. have same intersts3.彻底地互相信任trust each other completely
综合写作Richard III 的遗骸真伪，阅读认为不是他的，听力反驳阅读部分：1、遗骸DNA测出来头发颜色是金色而Richard III画像的发色是棕色2、遗骸Radiocarbon 测出来的死亡年龄比Richard III的真实死亡年龄要早 所以这个遗骸太老了3、Richard III作为一个身经百战的国王该有更多的伤痕的，这具遗骸的伤、关节问题太少了听力反驳：1、DNA只能测出来一个人小时候的特征，而很多人小时候是金发年纪越大头发颜色就变深了2、常吃海鲜的人身体里的radiocarbon会变少，所以遗骸测定出来的年龄比实际年龄小3、是有可能打过仗没有受伤的。而且他地位尊贵，战斗装备肯定精良。即便受伤。也不会太多，且都是小伤：比如皮肤划伤之类，一会就好了回忆7：口 语 部 分 Task 1你的朋友(大学生)打算把自行车换成汽车然后钱通过打工来赚钱，问你有什么建议Task 2大学打算允许社区的人来免费听课然后不算考试成绩和作业成绩你的建议是什么Task 3学生写信让二年级学生住校，一方面增加inteaction，帮助新生融入校园，另外能更多参加club活动。男生不同意，因为：1.新老学生在课堂上已经有足够的interaction，不用再让老生住学校增加互动了2.这样不能促进学生选 clubs 和活动，因为很多人选了好多，发现没时间就都退了Task 4Autoinhibition，举的例子是一种叫heather的shrub，它的种子一种飞向远方，一种落地生长，落地生长的会被有毒的化学物质抑制生长，相当于鼓励种子飞向远方Task 5男生遇到问题，他的化学study group十分钟后要一起复习考试，但是他有一个历史paper没写完今天就是截止日期。.两个方案1.不去学习小组2.和老师申请今天稍晚交Task 6上司给下级分配工作的两个考虑因素1.仍要监督，怕下级完成的不好 2.怕下级完成的太好以至于take over their position回忆8： 听 力 部 分
Conversation
1.一个学生想转专业，从戏剧转到音乐，老师觉得他学的很好，问他为什么要换
2.学生去图书馆借阅数学资料
3.关于互联网的business plan
Lecture
1.天文 neutron star
2.anthropology，讲了一个native American
3.动物会模仿其他动物来保护自己，讲了三种动物的例子
4.文学 narrative nonfiction
5.恒星运动 ，如果有三个恒星是一个系统 那么有一个离得远另外两个离得特别近 行星在这种系统里有两种不同的运行方式
6.songbirds 的鸣叫方式是如何适应城市环境的，在机场附近的songbird鸣叫的时间受影响，在高楼间的songbird由于echos会声音减小
回忆9：综合写作回顾(新题)
阅读主要观点提取
总论点：发现的一具男性头骨的残骸不是Richard三世的。
原因一：头发颜色不一样。根据该残骸的DNA检测，此人的头发应该是金色的，然而理查德三世的头发是棕色的。
原因二：年龄不一样。检测该残骸的牙齿发现，此人的年龄要比理查德三世死亡的年龄早。
原因三：该残骸没有伤痕，这与身经百战的理查德三世不符。
听力主要观点提取
总论点：这具残骸是理查德三世的。
原因一：头发的颜色会随着年龄的增长而改变。理查德三世可能小时候的发色是金色的，随着年龄的增长，发色开始加深变成了棕色。
原因二：理查德三世喜欢吃鱼和海鲜。然而，经常吃鱼和海鲜，牙齿中的碳含量会降低，所以该具遗体检测出的年龄并不精准，很有可能就是符合理查德三世死亡的时间的。
原因三：虽然理查德身经百战，但是他不一定就会受伤，因为有良好的装备和士兵保护他。另外，理查德有可能只是受了一些小伤，如皮外伤，但是这些伤并不会在骨头上留下任何痕迹。
回忆10：阅读 Documenting the Incas重复2013.01.12，2017.09.16，2018.09.16Theories of Megafauna Extinction重复2018.08.26首考新题Adaptations to Temperature重复2016.05.29首考新题
Two Kinds of Lizards重复2014.12.06，2015.08.22，2018.06.30The Origins of Plant and Animal Domestication重复2015.01.25The Cambrian Explosion重复2016.11.05，2017.08.27，2017.11.26，2018.01.28回忆11：独立写作he most important factors that affect the lasting time Of friendship 1.在危急的时候互相帮助2. have same intersts3.彻底地互相信任trust each other completely
综合写作：Richard III 的遗骸真伪，阅读认为不是他的，听力反驳阅读1.遗骸DNA测出来头发颜色是金色而Richard III画像的发色是棕色2.遗骸Radiocarbon 测出来的死亡年龄比Richard III的真实死亡年龄要早 所以这个遗骸太老了3.Richard III作为一个身经百战的国王该有更多的伤痕的，这具遗骸的伤、关节问题太少了
听力反驳1.DNA只能测出来一个人小时候的特征，而很多人小时候是金发年纪越大头发颜色就变深了2.常吃海鲜的人身体里的radiocarbon会变少，所以遗骸测定出来的年龄比实际年龄小3.是有可能打过仗没有受伤的。而且他地位尊贵，战斗装备肯定精良。即便受伤。也不会太多，且都是小伤：比如皮肤划伤之类，一会就好了。回忆12：口语Task 1你的朋友(大学生)打算把自行车换成汽车然后钱通过打工来赚钱，问你有什么建议Task2大学打算允许社区的人来免费听课然后不算考试成绩和作业成绩你的建议是什么Task3学生写信让二年级学生住校，一方面增加inteaction，帮助新生融入校园，另外能更多参加club活动。男生不同意，因为：1.新老学生在课堂上已经有足够的interaction，不用再让老生住学校增加互动了2.这样不能促进学生选 clubs 和活动，因为很多人选了好多，发现没时间就都退了Task4Autoinhibition，举的例子是一种叫heather的shrub，它的种子一种飞向远方，一种落地生长，落地生长的会被有毒的化学物质抑制生长，相当于鼓励种子飞向远方Task5男生遇到问题，他的化学study group十分钟后要一起复习考试，但是他有一个历史paper没写完今天就是截止日期。.两个方案1.不去学习小组2.和老师申请今天稍晚交Task6上司给下级分配工作的两个考虑因素1.仍要监督，怕下级完成的不好 2.怕下级完成的太好以至于take over their position回忆13：听力Conversation1.一个学生想转专业，从戏剧转到音乐，老师觉得他学的很好，问他为什么要换2.学生去图书馆借阅数学资料 3.关于互联网的business plan
Lecture天文 neutron staranthropology，讲了一个native American动物会模仿其他动物来保护自己，讲了三种动物的例子文学 narrative nonfiction恒星运动 ，如果有三个恒星是一个系统 那么有一个离得远另外两个离得特别近 行星在这种系统里有两种不同的运行方式 songbirds 的鸣叫方式是如何适应城市环境的，在机场附近的songbird鸣叫的时间会受影响，在高楼间的songbird由于echos会声音减小回忆14： 阅读：
物种灭绝两种观点：被人类大范围捕杀或者只是轻微捕杀但是mortality有关
高温或低温下动物生存
讲寒武纪生命大爆发，主要是原因和猜想，涉及到软体动物的外壳之类
讲人类种植和畜牧的影响，涉及人类从hunt andgather转向种植的原因
讲两种蜥蜴，一种动，一种静。他们能量消耗方式，身体构造和被捕食的可能性
Inca文化被Spanish记录
地形对气候的改变
人类对动物灭绝的影响
鸟如何散热
某一种恐龙是水生还是陆生
罗马的道路建设和进出口
回忆15：阅读：
1.Documenting the Incas
记录印加文明
（重复2013.01.12，2017.09.16，2018.09.16）
关于印加文明记录可能不准确，印加人没有自己的书写体系只能靠16th century的西班牙侵略者根据当时还遗留的印加informants提供的信息记录印加文明。西班牙人的文化和印加人的文化不同，所以很多记录都只是西班牙人根据自己的理解记录的，有失准确。举例西班牙人记录印加文明有13位国王的记录就不准确，实际上少于这个数字，西印的封号制度不同，印加侵略史也不准确，因为只有印加的一面之词，所以记录的远征史都是正义合法的，印加人和西班牙官员都会因为自己的私利而使得记录不准确，地名也记录不准确，但总体来说，西班牙人记录的印加文明还是可以信赖的，而且关于晚期印加文明，尤其是最后四位国王在位时的记录还是可靠的。
回看旧题记录2018年9月16日考试阅读机经
vast = extensive广阔的
drawbacks = disadvantages缺点
sequentially = one after another连续地
just = fair合理的
2.Theories of Megafauna Extinction
大型哺乳动物的灭绝
(重复2018.08.26)
主要围绕大型哺乳动物的灭绝的两个成因的讨论展开—人类活动还是气候变化，文章一共分成五段：第一和第二段认为是人类活动造成了大型哺乳动物的灭绝并解释了原因，第三段进一步支持前两段认为气候改变不是造成大型哺乳动物灭绝的原因，而最后两段转而支持气候变化是导致大型哺乳动物灭绝的原因。
回看旧题记录file:///C:\Users\ADMINI~1\AppData\Local\Temp\9ROEB3`C]1WGGCM{L2]J_WU.png2018年8月26日托福考试阅读机经
diverse = varied多种多样的
compensated = made up for组成
refuge = protected庇护
critically = dangerously危急地
3.Adaptations to Temperature
适应温度变化
(重复2016.05.29)
地球上的温度很少超过50°C,生物在高温以及低温条件下都很难生存，由于生物体内的一些生理过程随温度的升高反应速度变快，酶的活性也受温度影响。绝大部分生物在40°C时的代谢速度大约是10°C时的2至4倍（不同物种之间会有差异）。高温条件下，大部分生物都不能存活，除了生活在温泉（和含硫的环境）里的嗜热细菌（thermophilic bacteria），它们的生物分子之间如蛋白质分子之间结构会加强，来保证他们在高温下不会depart.这种细菌能够在80°C条件下生存，最高能忍受11°C的环境。海水因为含盐，冰点会低于0°C，对鱼很不利，因为这些鱼的细胞对高盐分很敏感，不能通过这种方式来防止freeze。这些鱼细胞里含有高浓度的抗冻剂（antifreeze）和糖蛋白（glycoproteins）来保证不结冰，冰雪在形成的时候，它们是以小的冰晶核(crystal)或者其他成分晶核为基础生长的。这就是通过coating在细胞内起这种作用的晶核表面，来阻止结冰。极地地区一些陆生生物，也通过这种方式来抵御严寒的冬天。它们体内的某种物质浓度在冬天最高能达到30%。
真题还原
本文第一题，是一个跨越7行的长难句，直至段尾结束。
【考句】
Because heat increase the kinetic energy of molecules and thereby accelerates chemical reactions, the rate of any biological process commonly increases typically between two and four times for each rise in temperature throughout the physiological range, enzymes and other proteins involved in biological processes, however, become less stable at high temperatures and may not function properly.
【解析】
这句话的难点在于：kinetic energy等必会的专业词汇的掌握；because断点的判断，何时引发结果部分；由for、in、throughout一连串介词引发的语义顺延；以及大量的后置复杂修饰。
首先解决词汇的问题，kinetic energy动能，即运动带来的能量；enzyme，酶，催化反应的一种蛋白质；protein，一般泛指蛋白质。
句子结构上，because引发的原因的结束以逗号出现为标志，所以逗号后面“the rate of any biological process…”才是真正的主干句上的结果，而前面的thereby只是because的顺带结果和because一起造成主干句的结果；
介词，需要掌握介词的基本意思，每一个介词都相当于一个小动词，用于引出后面作用的宾语名词，for表目的对象(对于/为了)，in表方面，throughout表贯穿跨越一个区间。所以顺读这部分“for each rise in temperature throughout the physiological range”，语义连续为：(目的对象是)对于每一个10度的增长，在温度方面的每一个10度的增长，而且是贯穿整个生理范围之内的温度方面的每一个10度的增长，即在生物能承受的生理范围之内温度的任何一个10度的增长。介词要掌握介词的基本意思，送考生最经典的一个例句，来自林肯葛底斯堡演说的名句，The government should be of, by and for the people. 介词就是弱化的动词，介词前面加be直接构成谓语。介词都有自己的基本意思，只要记住基本意思即可，所谓的很多短语即可忽视。of表属于，by表方式上的通过，for表目的对象。所以上句为：政府是属于人民、通过人民实现、并且为了人民的政府。这才是真正理解英文逻辑，顺读瞬间理解。如果按照中文翻译“民主民治民生(三民主义)”，你永远学不会地道英文，记住，语言学习不完全是翻译。
顺读考试第1题的句子为：因为【热增加了分子的动能，并因此加速了化学反应】，所以【任何生物过程的速度通常会增加2-4倍，增加2-4倍是对于贯穿生理区间范围内的温度每上升10度而言】，但是酶和其他蛋白质(参与到生物过程的酶和其他蛋白质)会变得更不稳定在高温下，并且也许不能正常地行使功能。
最后，针对考生反映没有太读懂这篇文章的原理机制，给出关键段落的剖析，即生物究竟如何对抗低温。
对抗零点之下低温的生物机制：一是依靠血液和体液中盐度上升。盐度上升后，血液和体液的凝固点会下降，这样可以保证生物在冰点之下的寒冷水域中自身血液/体液不会凝固。但是，生物体内蛋白质的结构和功能会因为盐分升高而失活，所以第一个办法行不通(impractical)。第二个办法，依靠血液和体液中甘油(glycerol)和糖蛋白(glycoproteins)浓度的上升。水中存在10%的甘油都能让水的凝固点下降2.3度，所以生物体中甘油浓度的上升也可以使生物体的血液/体液凝固点下降，保持液体状态继续行使生物功能。
对抗低温的另一个解决办法，叫做过度冷却(supercooling)。生物体温可以低到比环境温度更低的超低温，在这个过程中体液并不凝固成晶体(crystals)。因为结晶需要一个晶核(seed)，没有晶核即使再低的温度晶体也无法成形。生物体内的糖蛋白(glycoproteins)包裹住了正出现的晶核(coating developing seeds)，使晶核无法长大吸引周围的体液形成晶体结构，因此避免了生物体液的结晶固化(solidification)。
4.Two Kinds of Lizards
两种蜥蜴
(重复2014.12.06，2015.08.22，2018.06.30)
讲的是静止型与运动型的两种蜥蜴。静止型的蜥蜴靠眼睛来观察和捕捉猎物，猎物一般都比较大。运动型的蜥蜴主要靠化学线索，一般捉到的是一群集中的小猎物。然后谈到了他们的捕食习惯影响了被捕获的可能。静止型的蜥蜴经常被运动型的捕食者捕获，而运动型的蜥蜴则是相反。最后说他们的能源获取方法。静止型主要靠无氧呼吸，爆发力好；而运动型主要靠有氧呼吸，持续性强，同时由大心脏，供血充足。
steadily = at an unvarying rate稳定地
concentrations = dense groupings聚集物
reflect = indicate指出
obscure = hide隐藏
真题还原:
Two Kinds of Lizards
Lizards can be divided into two types according to the way they look for food: sit-and-wait foragers and active foragers. Sit-and-wait lizards normally remain in one spot from which they can survey a broad area. These motionless lizards detect the movement of an insect visually and capture it with a quick run from their observation site. Sit-and-wait lizards may be most successful in detecting and capturing relatively large insects like beetles and grasshoppers. Active foragers, on the other hand, spend most of their time on the ground surface, moving steadily and poking their heads under fallen leaves and into crevices in the ground. These lizards apparently rely largely on chemical cues to detect insects, and they probably seek out local concentrations of prey such as termites. Active foragers appear to eat more insects than do lizards that are sit-and-wait predators. Thus, the different foraging behaviors of lizards lead to differences in their diets, even when the two kinds of lizards occur in the same habitat.
The different foraging modes also have different consequences for lizards regarding their exposure to predators. A lizard that spends 99 percent of its time resting motionless is relatively inconspicuous, whereas a lizard that spends most of its time moving is easily seen. Sit-and-wait lizards are probably most likely to be discovered and captured by predators that are active searchers, whereas widely foraging lizards are likely to be caught by sit-and-wait predators. Because of this difference, foraging modes may alternate at successive levels in the food chain: insects that move about may be captured by lizards that are sit-and-wait foragers, and those lizards may be eaten by active predators, whereas insects that are sedentary are more likely to be discovered by lizards that are active foragers, and those lizards may be caught by sit-and-wait predators.
The body forms of sit-and-wait foragers may reflect selective pressures different from those that act on active foragers. Sit-and-wait lizards are often stout bodied, short tailed, and colored to match their background. Many of these species have patterns of different-colored blotches that probably obscure the outlines of the lizard's body as it rests motionless on a rock or a tree trunk. Active foragers are usually slim and elongated with long tails, and they often have patterns of stripes that may produce optical illusions as they move. However, one predator-avoidance mechanism, the ability to break off their tails when they are seized by predators, does not differ among lizards with different foraging modes.
What physiological characteristics are necessary to support different foraging modes . The energy requirements of a quick motion that lasts for only a second or two are quite different from those of locomotion that is sustained nearly continuously for several hours. Sit-and-wait lizards and active foragers differ in their relative emphasis on the two ways that most animals use adenosine triphosphate (ATP)a molecule that transports energy within cells for activity and in how long that activity can be sustained. Sit-and-wait lizards move in brief spurts, and they rely largely on anaerobic metabolism to sustain their movements, namely the kind of metabolism that does not use oxygen. Anaerobic metabolism uses glycogen stored in the muscles and produces lactic acid as its end product. It is a way to synthesize ATP quickly (because the glycogen is already in the muscles), but it is not good for sustained activity because the glycogen is quickly exhausted and lactic acid inhibits cellular metabolism. Lizards that rely on anaerobic metabolism can make brief sprints but become exhausted when they are forced to run continuously. In contrast, aerobic metabolism uses glucose that is carried to the muscles by the circulatory system, and it produces carbon dioxide and water as end products. Aerobic exercise can continue for long periods because the circulatory system brings more glucose and carries carbon dioxide away. As a result, active foragers can sustain activity for long periods without exhaustion. Active species of lizards have larger hearts and more red blood cells in their blood than do sit-and-wait species. As a result, each beat of the heart pumps more blood, and that blood carries more oxygen to the tissues of an active species than a sit-and-wait species.
5.The Cambrian Explosion
寒武纪大爆发
(重复2015.01.25，2016.11.05，2017.08.27，2017.11.26，2018.01.28)
讲了为什么C时代进化快，和为什么之后没有物种爆发。先说了 C时代之前物种进化的很慢，之后在C一开始就飞速进化，造成这个原因有C时代氧气比以前多，基因的复杂性的显现，气候终于合适了，以及没有捕食者，最后一段说，之后再也不会有物种大爆发的时代了。原因一之后捕食者也同样强大，会吃掉新物种，原因二因为生物只能在body plan的基础上进化，不会有新的body structure, 原因三基因的局限。
ongoing = continuing持续
corresponds to = matches匹配
complexity = sophistication复杂
allowing = making possible使可能
真题原文:
The Cambrian Explosion
The earliest fossil evidence for eukaryotes complex organisms whose cells contain a distinct nucleusdates to only about 1.2 billion years ago. The fossil record suggests that animal evolution progressed slowly, with relatively little change seen between fossils from 1.2 billion years ago and those from a half-billion years later. But then something quite dramatic happened as can be judged by the many different animal groups that suddenly appear in the fossil record.
Biologists classify animals according to their basic body plans. For example, the basic body plan shared by mammals and reptiles is fundamentally different from that of insects. Animals are grouped by body plan into what biologists call phyla. Mammals and reptiles both belong to the single phylum Chordata, which includes animals with internal skeletons. Insects, crabs, and spiders belong to the phylum Arthropoda, which contains animals with body features such as jointed legs, an external skeleton, and segmented bodies. Classifying animals into phyla is an ongoing project for biologists, but modern animals appear to comprise about 30 different phyla, each representing a different body plan.
Remarkably, nearly all of these different body plans, plus a few others that have gone extinct, make their first known appearance in the geological record during a period spanning only about 40 million years less than about 1 percent of Earth's history. This remarkable flowering of animal diversity appears to have begun about 545 million years ago, which corresponds to the start of the Cambrian period. Hence it is called the Cambrian explosion.
The fact that the Cambrian explosion marks the only major diversification of body plans in the geological record presents us with two important and related questions: Why, so long after the origin of eukaryotes, did the pace of evolution suddenly accelerate dramatically at the beginning of the Cambrian, and why hasn't there been another period of similarly explosive diversification since then？We can identify at least four factors that might have contributed to the Cambrian explosion. First, the oxygen level in our atmosphere may have remained well below its present level until about the time of the Cambrian explosion. Thus, the rapid diversification in animal life may have occurred at least in part because oxygen reached a critical level for the survival of larger and more energy-intensive life forms.
A second factor that may have been important was the evolution of genetic complexity. As eukaryotes evolved, they developed more and more genetic variation in their DNA. Some scientists believe that the Cambrian explosion marks the point at which organisms developed certain kinds of genes (homeobox genes) that control body form and that could be combined in different ways, allowing the evolution of a great diversity of forms over time.
A third factor may have been climate change. Geological evidence points to a series of episodes in which Earth froze over before the Cambrian began. The extreme climate conditions of these episodes eliminated many species, leaving a wide array of ecological niches available into which new species could rapidly evolve when climate conditions eased at the beginning of the Cambrian.
A fourth factor may have been the absence of efficient predators. Early predatory animals were probably not very sophisticated, so some evolving animals that later might have been eliminated by predation were given a chance to survive, making the beginning of the Cambrian period a window of opportunity for many different adaptations to establish themselves in the environment.
This last idea may partly explain why no similar explosion of diversity has taken place since the Cambrian: once predators were efficient and widespread, it may have been virtually impossible for animals with entirely new body forms to find an environmental niche in which they could escape predation. Or it may be that while more body plans may have been possible at some early point in evolution, it was not possible to evolve into those other body plans from the body plans that evolved in the Cambrian. Or perhaps the various body forms that arose during the Cambrian explosion represent the full range of forms possible given the basic genetic resources that characterize all Earth's organisms. In any case, no fundamentally new body forms have emerged since the Cambrian explosion.
6.How Birds Get Cool
鸟如何散热
第一段总述当鸟类热的时候，会通过不同方式来散热，主要是羽毛血压和蒸发来散热。第二段说鸟类用羽毛散热。鸟类的羽毛很密，但他们的毛囊是可以立起来的，使空气能够充分的接触到没有羽毛的部分adjacent，从而带走多余的热量。第三段说鸟类和人一样，可以通过加快血液循环来散热。首先说人在热时，体表的血管会变大，血流速度会加快，所以通常人一热，一个典型的现象就是肤色变红。而鸟一般是促进腿上脚上以及翅膀的血液循环来散热。第四段说鸟还能用背部散热，而且散热量是总散热量的60%左右，所以很多热带的鸟类都会有很大的喙，在冬天或者冷的时候，鸟一般会把喙藏在羽毛里以防止热量流失。第五段说鸟通过蒸发散热，会像很多哺乳动物和脊柱动物一样，但又不像他们那么简单的只是通过一呼一吸使液体变为气体，鸟的肺有9个或更多气室，会使空气流遍全身，从而能更好的散热。
7.Did Seismosaurus Live in Swamp?
地震龙如何在沼泽生存
第一段讲述了地震龙是最大的恐龙，有长脖子和长尾巴，所以可能是居住在水里的，它的长尾巴是为了游泳，长脖子是能把它的头从水里抬起来，头顶的气孔就像潜水艇的瞭望镜一样能让他呼吸且完全沉入水中。第二段又讲述另一个观点，认为地震龙不能够生活在水中，首先水中压力特别大，除非它的肌肉非常发达，才能使它在水下呼吸。同时它的头骨和河马不同反而更像大象，所以也说明地震龙不能再水中生活。第三段说地震龙的长脖子可能和长颈鹿一样，是为了使它吃到高出的植物，而且根据发现的化石，它的腿骨足够强壮，能支撑它再陆地上行走。第四段是通过计算器建模，比较了好几种地震龙的颈部能力，以说明其能够再陆地上生活。
8.The Origin of Plant and Animal Domestication
植物动物驯养的起源（重复2015.01.25）
本文共6段。第一段介绍植物动物驯养的概念。第二段写一般学者认为植物动物驯化只在一两个地区形成，后面传播到其他地区。但后面基因研究证明，各个地区都有独立的生物驯化，通过selective breeding。所以是独立驯化和diffusion一起导致其传播。第三写人们认为人们驯化生物是为了应对增长的人口和提高食物的营养。但后来研究表明其实是驯化生物之后，人口才进一步增长，并提高人们的营养成分。第四段写R教授对于植物动物驯养目的的研究，是为了满足生存需求。第六段E.N教授进一步讨论植物动物驯化引发的全球性问题，包括环境、财富不均、人口增长等问题。
monumental = enormous极其的
manipulated = skillfully used熟练控制的
pursue = practice进行
subsistence = survival维持
真题原文:
The Origins of Plant and Animal Domestication
The emergence of plant and animal domestication represented a monumental change in the ways that humans interacted with Earth’s resources: the rate at which Earth’s surface was modified and the rates of human population growth. The development of agriculture was accompanied by fundamental changes in the organization on human society: disparities in wealth, hierarchies of power, and urbanization.
Phrases like “plant and animal domestication” and “the invention of agriculture” create the impression that humans made the transition to cultivating plants and tending animals rather abruptly, maybe with a flash of insight. Most scholars don’t think so. It seems more likely that humans used and manipulated wild plants and animals for many hundreds of thousands of years. The transition to gardens, fields, and pastures was probably gradual, the natural outgrowth of a long familiarity with the environmental requirements, growth cycles, and reproductive mechanisms of whatever plants and animals humans liked to eat, ride, or wear.
For years, scholars argued that the practices of cultivation and animal domestication were invented in one or two locations on Earth and then diffused from those centers of innovation. Genetic studies are now showing that many different groups of people in many different places around the globe learned independently to create especially useful plants and animals through selective breeding. Probably both independent invention and diffusion played a role in agricultural innovation. Sometimes the ideas of domestication and cultivation were relayed to new places. In other cases the farmers or herders themselves moved into new zones, taking agriculture or improvements such as new tools or new methods or new plants and animals with them.
Scholars used to assume that people turned to cultivating instead of gathering their food either because they had to in order to feed burgeoning populations, or because agriculture provided such obviously better nutrition. It now seems that neither of these explanations is valid. First of all, the risk attached to exploring new food sources when there were already too many mouths to feed would be too great. Second, agriculture did not necessarily improve nutrition or supplies of food. A varied diet based on gathered (and occasionally hunted) food probably provided a wider, more secure range of nutrients than an early agriculturally based diet of only one or two cultivated crops. More likely, populations expanded after agricultural successes, and not before.
Richard MacNeish, an archaeologist who studied plant domestication in Mexico and Central America, suggested that the chance to trade was at the heart of agricultural origins worldwide. Many of the known locations of agricultural innovation lie near early trade centers. People in such places would have had at least two reasons to pursue cultivation and animal raising; they would have had access to new information, plants, and animals brought in by traders, and they would have had a need for something to trade with the people passing through. Perhaps, then, agriculture was at first just a profitable hobby for hunters and gatherers that eventually, because of market demand, grew into the primary source of sustenance. Trade in agricultural products may also have been a hobby that led to trouble.
E. N. Anderson, writing about the beginnings of agriculture in China, suggests that agricultural production for trade may have been the impetus for several global situations now regarded as problems: rapid population growth, social inequalities, environmental degradation, and famine. Briefly explained, his theory suggests that groups turned to raising animals and plants in order to reap the profits of trading them. As more labor was needed to supply the trade, humans produced more children. As populations expanded, more resources were put into producing food for subsistence and for trade. Gradually, hunting and gathering technology was abandoned as populations, with their demands for space, destroyed natural habitats. Meanwhile, a minority elite emerged when the wealth provided by trade did not accrue equally to everyone. Yet another problem was that a drought or other natural disaster could wipe out an entire harvest, thus, as ever larger populations depended solely on agriculture, famine became more common.
9.地形对气候的改变
说了美国某个州的南部本来是wet lands不太适用种crops，然后他们就把水排了开始种orange，结果冬天就更冷了，导致北边原来可以种的地方越来越往南移动。
10. How Birds Acquire Their Songs
鸟类发声研究
鸟刚出生不会叫，学习父母叫，某white 鸟类野外比实验室叫的早是为了宣告自己存在，有一个关键学习期，成熟后受环境影响只学习同种鸟的发声。
prompt = stimulate 刺激
particular = specific特别的
eventually = in the end最终
recall = remember记起
真题原文：
How Birds Acquire Their Songs
Most songbirds hatch in the spring and then merely listen to the songs of adult male birds until sometime in late summer or autumn, when the adults stop singing, not to resume until the end of winter the following year. It is usually male birds that are doing the singing in northern latitudes, though female singing is common in the tropics. Many young songbirds do no singing of their own until nearly a year after their birth. With the coming of their second spring, their testosterone levels rise and this in turn prompts them to begin singing, with their song development following a predictable pattern over a period of weeks. At first, their songs may be a quiet, jumbled series of chirps and whistles. Over time, young birds begin to use the syllables of their species' songs, though the order in which these syllables appear will vary. Finally, their songs crystallize (take form) into the clear, orderly song of their species.
There is a songbird, called the white-crowned sparrow, whose song development follows this general script while providing some variations that are instructive about the interplay of internal influences and learning in birdsong. White-crowned sparrows raised in captivity will follow the pattern of song acquisition just described: they listen to songs in their first spring and summer but do not themselves begin singing until they are perhaps six months old. In nature, however, things are different. For example, the white-crown found year-round in the San Francisco area sings a particular regional variant or dialect of the basic white-crown song and begins singing within six weeks or so of birth and may progress to fully crystallized song as early as three months after birth, meaning about September.
Why would there be a difference between singing in nature and singing in the laboratory
The pressures of nature. As year-round residents, the San Francisco white-crowns do not
fly into an area in spring and then establish territories. Rather, they establish territories as early as their first autumn. One function of birdsong is to announce, I have a territory here. Young white-crowns, like many species, will extend this practice by countersinging, meaning a male, upon hearing the song of a nearby male of its species, will repeat the exact song he has heard, thus setting off a back-and-forth duel, like two children in an argument, each of them saying, I'm still here.
Internal influences and learning are also on display in white-crowns in the way they acquire their songs. We know that there is often a so-called sensitive period for animal learninga kind of window in which an animal is able to acquire certain skills or information. In laboratory-raised white-crowns, the sensitive period starts at about ten days after birth and extends until about fifty days after birth. A white-crown that became deaf prior to the opening of the sensitive period eventually will sing individual notes, but it will never learn to sing its species' song. Meanwhile, white-crowns that are raised in nature through part of their sensitive period and then taken to the laboratory will begin singing the following winter in the dialect of the area in which they were hatched. Two points are worth observing about this. First, note that these birds are learning the white-crown song months before they ever start practicing it themselves. Indeed, the learning window will be closed completely (in their first summer) before these lab-reared birds ever sing a note (the following winter). Second, learning is important enough in song acquisition that white-crowns learn not just their species' song but local or regional variants of it, which they are able to recall months after last hearing them.
But what about internal influences Interestingly, all white-crowns that are reared in isolation from birth eventually sing nearly identical versions of a kind of standard white-crown song. In other words, there seems to be a built-in version of the white-crown song that becomes modified with local dialects only when birds are raised in the wild. Beyond this, isolated white-crowns that are exposed to tapes of other species' songs will ignore the other birds' songs entirely and go on to sing the basic white-crown song. White-crowns are thus genetically disposed to learn their own song while ignoring the songs of others.
11.火山对空气的影响
火山喷发造成空气污染，气温降低，对几个空气层的影响。
12.Transportation and the Roman Empire
罗马帝国的交通
文章主要讲述在古罗马帝国交通系统的发展和交通对于罗马帝国的影响。主要从两个方面来阐述：一是陆上交通，主要以马和牛拉的车为主，目的是三个：连接各个地区，运送不同物质到前线，方便税收。同时也说了陆上交通对于长途交通而言成本过大，主要是拉车的牲畜需要粮草，所以对于私人商人而言无法负担。第二段说的是海上交通，相对陆上交通而言，海上交通更为危险，行驶的路途也更为长，但同时也更为便宜，因为主要是以风来驱动航船，同时海上交通也为罗马帝国的形成提供了很大的助力。最后一段是说罗马作为一个人口大国，需要从很多地方进口粮食物资，所以帝国的繁荣离不开交通的繁荣。
回忆16：
2018年11月10日托福考试总体反馈-2018年11月10日托福命中ABC卷多篇阅读真题原题（大量阅读旧题），命中独立和综合大作文真题原题（都是旧题），命中口语四部分和听力四篇旧题，听力最难，CPU资料阅读、写作、听力、口语等全面大中，全面开花！今天的托福考试，依然是几套试卷组合，这种模式会一直持续下去。今天托福考试几大特点：（1）听力、口语、写作、阅读老题重复量巨大。（3）在大部分考试中，写作听力一直是四项难度最大，并且对话难度超过讲座）（4）独立和综合写作重复老题，是我们TOEFL CPU资料里面的。今天大部分题目都在我们CPU资料原题命中！祝贺CPU会员将出现不少100-110分以上托福天才！今天听力阅读里大多是老题，仍然大量重复2015-2017年的老题，尤其是我们CPU托福资料的真题。今天口语和写作也是老题居多。ETS今年虽然在考试形式上变化很多，但其实使用的新题非常少，大都是在重复2014-2017年大陆考过的新题。这一方面说明，ETS出题成本太高（80万美金一套），所以出题量小。另一方面说明，托福考试的整体趋势还是稳定的。形式上的变化（多套试卷，阅读加试，听力非经典加试），并不能改变这个考试的内在。今天听力，口语，阅读和写作都重复老题。总体反馈请复制链接进入http://bbs.ieltstofelglobal.com/thread-242012-1-1.html和http://bbs.ieltstofelglobal.com/thread-241887-1-1.html和http://bbs.ieltstofelglobal.com/forum-133-1.html
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